Jean Paul Sartres Writing - No Exit Essay -- essays research papers

Jean Paul Sartre’s Philosophical Writing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jean Paul Sartre personally believed in the philosophical idea of existentialism, which is demonstrated in his play No Exit. His ideas of existentialism were profoundly outlined in the play. Based on the idea that mental torture is more agonizing than physical, No Exit leaves the reader with mixed emotions towards the importance of consequences for one’s acts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Set in Hell, the vision of the underworld is nothing the characters imagined as they are escorted to a Second Empire styled hotel. This is all ironic, in the fact that Sartre never believed in perdition. He uses this fictitious place to persuade his audience. Hell is used as a foundation to prove his point. The characters, Garcin, Inez, and Estelle, are all brought together by some kind of complicated design that they try to unveil. Each character has a story and a reason for their damnation, but what they look for is an answer for their presence with each other. Garcin, a journalist and pacifist that took 12 to the chest, was the first to attempt to mend matters in the room. His idea to be courteous to one another is later contradicted when he begins to fight with Inez. Estelle, a self-absorbed instigator, appears to suffer from denial.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As these three people sit and argue about their past, their visions of life on earth are gradually fading. When they see how things are not going as the...

Household Fuel Project :: essays research papers

The UNJLC mission to the greater Darfurs and assessment of UN/NGO interest and commitment to launch an ITDG project promoting manufacture of fuel-efficient stoves from locally available organic materials by IDP camp women thus, reducing firewood consumption by 40%, has been concluded. Project proposal development responsibility were delegated to the Fuel and Energy Development Groups (F&EWD) established during the mission's visit to El Fasher, Nyala and Geneina comprising a cross section of UN and NGO partners. UNJLC and ITDG Khartoum organization management, structure and process flow discussions were concluded since the last bulletin-reporting period resulting in a formalized and systems approach that demarcates service provider and NGO stakeholder responsibility levels and assists F&EWGs in development of geographic specific project proposals, which thereafter will be forwarded by the field directly to ITDG Khartoum for compilation and presentation to DFID in accordance with donor conditions. Preliminary dissemination of road-map guidelines coinciding with inter-agency meeting in El Fasher are undergoing final revision for broad electronic dissemination to all locations by 23 September. Other significant contributions include the launching of an F&EWG inter-agency 100 household surveys in Nyala comprising World Vision, as focal point covering Kalma and Otash camps. Save the Children UK will commence survey work in Manawashe, Mushing and Duma while IRC covers Kass. Surveys are based upon data standardization mission recommendations and will capture trend information (i.e. distances currently travelled by women collecting firewood compared with 3 months ago) and gender based threat data (incidence, periodicity of risk/threat factors) and solicits GBV risk/mitigation recommendations from respondents. Data capture fields of wood fuel consumption, access, collection methods, meals preparation related to fuel availability supplement the survey's format. 13 UN and NGO partners forming the consortium of F&EWG with HelpAge nominated as focal point are concurrently carrying out a similar 100 household survey in Geneina.

Pakistan and modern concept of rule of law Essay

Aristotle said more than two thousand years ago, â€Å"The rule of law is better than that of any individual.† The notion of the â€Å"rule of law† stems from many traditions and continents and is intertwined with the evolution of the history of law itself. The Code of Hammourabi, promulgated by the King of Babylon around 1760 BC, is one of the first examples of the codification of law, presented to the public and applying to the acts of the ruler. In the Arab world, a rich tradition of Islamic law embraced the notion of the supremacy of law. Core principles of holding government authority to account and placing the wishes of the populace before the rulers, can be found amid the main moral and philosophical traditions across the Asian continent, including in Confucianism. In the Anglo-American context, the Magna Carta of 1215 was a seminal document, emphasizing the importance of the independence of the judiciary and the role of judicial process as fundamental characteristics of the rule of law. In continental Europe notions of rule of law focused on the nature of the State, particularly on the role of constitutionalism. Rule of law is classical principle of administrative law. As a matter of fact this principle was one of the principles that acted as impediment in development of Administrative Law principles. The irony further is that the rule of law is now an important part of modern Administrative Law. Whereas the rule of law is still the one of the very important principles regulating in common law countries and common law derived countries modern laws has denied some of the important parts of rule of law as proposed by Dicey at the start of 19th Century. DICEY’s RULE OF LAW: As mentioned above the concept of rule of law backs to the time of Aristotle. Aristotle ruled out the concept of rule under discretion by all means and tried to convey his followers that given the choice it is always rule of law that scores over rule of discretion. Though Sir Edward Coke was the originator of this concept, but Dicey developed this theory. Now it is popularly known as Dicey’s theory of Rule of Law. It is also known as the Traditional concept of rule of law. According to Dicey, this doctrine has three meanings: i) Supremacy of Law ii) Equality before law iii) Predominance of legal spirit SUPREMACY OF LAW: Rule of law in this sense means the absolute supremacy of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power or wide discretionary power. Dicey says, Wherever there is discretion, there is room for arbitrariness and that in a republic no less than under a monarchy discretionary authority on the part of the Government must mean insecurity for legal freedom on the part of its subjects.  EQUALITY BEFORE LAW: Dicey states that there must be equality before the law or the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by the ordinary law courts. According to him, there should not be any extra-ordinary tribunals or special courts for officers of the Government and other authorities. PREDOMINANCE OF LEGAL SPIRIT: Dicey emphasized the role of the courts of law as guarantors of liberty & suggested that the rights would be more secured if they were enforceable in the courts of law than by mere declaration of those rights in a document. Dicey’s theory of rule of law was never accepted fully even in his days. Many scholars criticized his theory. He was firm proponent of the concept and very influential thinker of his times. Though the first two principles are still in almost every legal system of world, the third principle was protested many of jurists of that time. The Dicey in particular opposed the principle of French system of  Droit Administratiff. England at that time was in fact propounding some quasi legislative and quasi judicial processes which were taken cognizance of English thinkers of that time; still the whole common law system of country was blindfolded with the Dicey’s philosophy of â€Å"rule of law.† MODERN CONCEPT OF RULE OF LAW Recent attempts to formalize its meaning have drawn on this rich history of diverse understandings. The modern conception of the rule of law has developed as a concept distinct from the â€Å"rule of man†, involving a system of governance based on non-arbitrary rules as opposed to one based on the power and whim of an absolute ruler. The concept of rule of law is deeply linked to the principle of justice, involving an ideal of accountability and fairness in the protection and vindication of rights and the prevention and punishment of wrongs. Long before the United Nations, States were working towards a rule of justice in international life with a view to establishing an international community based on law. SEVEN MODERN PRINCIPLE MEANING OF RULE OF LAW Davis gives seven principal meanings of the term Rule of Law  which is known as Modern concept of Rule of Law. These are as follows: i) Maintenance of Law & order. ii) Existence of fixed rules iii) Elimination of discretion where it is not necessary iv) Following due process of law or fairness v) Observance of the principles of natural justice vi) Preference for Judges and ordinary courts of law to executive authorities & administrative tribunals vii) Judicial review of administrative actions. MODERN RULE OF LAW DEFINED IN INTERNATIONAL DOCUMENTS. Today, the concept of the rule of law is embedded in the Charter of the United Nations. In its Preamble, one of the aims of the UN is â€Å"to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained†. A primary purpose of the Organization is â€Å"to maintain international peace and security†¦ and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace.† The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the historic international recognition that all human beings have fundamental rights and freedoms, recognizes that â€Å"†¦ it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law†¦Ã¢â‚¬  FOR THE UN, THE SECRETARY-GENERAL DEFINES the rule of law as â€Å"a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards. It requires, as well, measures to ensure adherence to the principles of supremacy of law, equality before the law, accountability to the law, fairness in the application of the law, separation of powers, participation in decision-making, legal certainty, avoidance of arbitrariness and procedural and legal transparency.† The principle of the rule of law applies at the national and international levels. At the national level, the UN supports a rule of law framework that includes a Constitution or its equivalent, as the highest law of the land; a clear and consistent legal framework, and implementation thereof; strong institutions of justice, governance, security and human rights that are well structured, financed, trained and equipped; transitional justice processes  and mechanisms; and a public and civil society that contributes to strengthening the rule of law and holding public officials and institutions accountable. At the international level, the principle of the rule of law embedded in the Charter of the United Nations encompasses elements relevant to the conduct of State to State relations. The Declaration of Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations: recognizes the inherent link between the UN and the international rule of law. Its preamble emphasizesâ€Å"the paramount importance of the Charter of the United Nations in the promotion of the rule of law among nations.†Drawn from existing commitments in international law, the core values and principles of the UN include respect for the Charter and international law; respect for the sovereign equality of States and the principle of non-use or threat of use of force; the fulfillment in good faith of international obligations; the need to resolve disputes by peaceful means; respect for and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms; recognition that protection from genocide, crimes against humanity, ethnic cleansing and war crimes is not only a responsibility owed by a State to its population, but a responsibility of the international community, the equal rights and self-determination of peoples; and the recognition that peace and security, development, human rights, the rule of law and democracy are interlinked and mutually reinforcing. Appropri ate rules of international law apply to the Organization as they do to States. RULE OF LAW IN DEVELOPING SOCIETY LIKE PAKISTAN: IN developing societies, the rule of law is often slaughtered at the altar of discretion and personal whims. However, governance, peace, investment and development are interlinked with the extent of the rule of law in a society.Where the rule of law exists the government and its functionaries are accountable. Due care is exercised to ensure that no single organ of the state becomes omnipotent. Mere legislation alone is not enough. Public consent strengthens the rule of law. Laws not synchronized with social and cultural values result in low acceptance. Awareness regarding the law not only empowers but also improves enforcement. In the developing world, the public tends to narrowly interpret the rule of law. In Pakistan, evidence  abounds of how the law is bent or broken, with society suffering as a consequence. Misappropriation of public money, sale of spurious medicines, issuance of fake degrees, non-payment of taxes and loans are but a few examples of lawlessness in Pakistan. In a democratic society the rule of law reflects the quality of governance. Weak enforcement of the law provides space to criminals and terrorists to further their aims. For example in Karachi, the country’s biggest city, the Supreme Court has taken notice of the existence of ‘no-go areas’. The presence of gangs in the Lyari area is another challenge for the Karachi police. Such groups patronize extortion, as well as the proliferation of weapons and drugs. Though we are an energy-starved country, the theft of electricity and gas is considered normal practice. For example, illegal gas connections in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa’s Karak district have touched alarming levels. The district is said to be a defaulter of Rs210m. Our tax laws provide exemptions to certain sectors, such as agriculture. According to a media report only 0.81 million people filed tax returns during 2011-12, despite the fact that some 3.39 million people possessed National Tax Numbers. â€Å"Only 0.6pc of the population pays taxes in Pakistan, as against 4.7pc in India, 58pc in France and 80pc in Canada,† the report observes. The easy availability of weapons and explosives is another grave issue badly affecting peace in the country. According to an estimate 20 million illegal weapons pose a serious threat to national security. However, deweaponization based on zero tolerance can earn dividends. Balochistan is a province where establishing the rule of law is a major challenge. The country’s largest province, as far as area is concerned, is divided into ‘A’ and ‘B’ policing areas. To strengthen the writ of the government in 2003 a program of converting ‘B’ areas into ‘A’ areas at the cost of Rs5.515bn was started. But owing to certain reas ons the colonial-cum-tribal set-up was restored in 2009. When institutions fail to protect human rights and dispense justice, the vacuum is filled by non-state actors. The low conviction rate encourages criminals. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, during 2012 in cases of terrorism, the conviction rate was only 4pc. Overall in Pakistan the conviction rate varies from 5pc to 10pc, whereas in the US it is 95pc. According to India’s National Crime Records Bureau data, in that country during 2012 the conviction rate was 38.5pc. The rule of law requires balance between rights and responsibilities, where no one is above the law —  including the government. The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights and everyone is supposed to have access to justice, including the accused. In our context judicial activism and a free media have enhanced the understanding of human rights. From September 2012 to September 2013, 45,040 complaints were filed with the Human Rights Cell of the SC. Yet delayed justice erodes the public’s confidence in the system. For example in 2012 there were 107,088 cases pending in 437 courts of Sindh alone. Reluctance of the witnesses to testify speaks to the defects in the system. The rule of law requires a human-friendly correctional system, having the capacity to correct human behavior. But Pakistan’s overcrowded jails only end up creating more hardened criminals. RULE OF LAW UNDER CONSTITUTION OF ISLAMICE REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN 1973 In the constitution of Pakistan 1973 the principle of rule of law was embodied in shape of article 4 which though is not a part of the fundamental Rights however provides better safe guard to the individual as even in the emergency this right to be dealt in accordance with law is not suspended. As it was held in Jamal Shah Case PLD 1966 SC 1. According to Kaikas Justice Article 4 prevents the Government from taking any action in their country for which there is no legal sanction and it at the same time debars the legislature from creating an authority whose actions are not subject to law. It was also held in Mir Ali Nawaz Bugti vs. Superintendent Jail PLD 1966 sc 357 , 360 It is intended to negative any claim by the Government that any category of its acts in relation to citizens and other persons in paksitan are not subject to law at all In Brig. Imtiaz Ahmad vs Govt. of Pakistan 1994 SCMR 2142, 2160. It was sought to be argued that the Appellant the former director Intelligence Bureau who had challenged the registration of some criminal cases against him was not an ordinary man, the supreme court thought it necessary to recall for the benefit of all concerns that â€Å" the law makes no difference between great and petty officers ; thank God they all are amenable to justice. In Federation of Pakistan vs. Ghulam Mustafa Khar PLD 1989 SC 26, 53 It was held that so predominant is the position of Article 4 in the constitution that it furnishes the only Guarantee assurance to the citizen  when the fundamental rights are suspended.in a ay the Article confers a right which is more basic then fundamental rights because while the fundamental rights can be suspended the right given in Article 4 cannot be. In Manzoor Ellahi vs. federation of Pakistan PLD 1975 SC 66 it was held that Pakistan is governed Rule of Law as as embodied in Article 4 and 5 of Constitution. The constitution creates no right and imposes no duty in vain. INTRODUCTION OF DUE PROCESS AND FAIR TRIAL IN FORM OF ARTICLE 10-A â€Å"10A. Right to fair trial.- For the determination of his civil rights and obligations or in any criminal charge against him a person shall be entitled to a fair trial and due process.† After introduction of Article 10 A The due process of law which is relatively a wider term than the rule of law has been made the part of fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution to the subjects of the state. Through Article 10-A of the Constitution which is largely inspired by Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, the legislators have introduced two fundamental concepts i.e. of due process and fair trial. Interlinked as these are, due process has a much wider meaning than fair trial. The history of due process is rooted in the Magna Carta in English jurisprudence and, subsequently, in the American jurisprudence surrounding the 5th and 14th amendments to the US constitution. The 14th Amendment, for example, states: â€Å"No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.† The US Supreme Court has interpreted the 14th Amendment as having created a constitutional natural law that would be available as a protection against the states and not just the federal government (which was the position under the 5th Amendment). In Pakistan the Article 10 A is still under process of interpretation before various court as various exiting laws have been challenged in various writ Petitions. However it can be presumed that the introduction of Article 10 A would be serve as an instrument for the legislature and law enforcing agencies to seal with the subjects on equal footing while law making process. CONCLUSION: For improvement in the rule of law, the ‘enforcement wings’ of authorities  such as the Federal Board of Revenue, civic administrations, PEMRA, the Pakistan Telecommunication Authority and the Drug Regulatory Authority etc. need better administration. The media in Pakistan, especially the electronic media, has the potential to educate the masses regarding their role in the establishment of the rule of law. Instead, at times, some outlets end up glorifying non-state actors. Improved rule of law in Pakistan requires an improved criminal justice system, especially in Fata, Balochistan, Karachi and certain parts of KPK. Therefore capacity-building and revamping of the whole criminal justice system is essential. Reforming one component will not work; synchronised reforms are the need of the hour.

Battle of the Beers

Case Study: Battle of the Beers Q1: what attributes are the most important in determining beer purchasing decisions? How does this vary by market segemts? The various attributes are Aroma Appearance Taste Aftertaste or finish Aroma A beer’s aroma is extremely important to its overall taste. The aroma determines the purchase decision of a beer. The market segments that use this attribute to purchase a beer are mostly experienced. The experience and the age determine the attribute. Appearance: The process of buying a beer begins with its visual appearance.Many people make hasty judgments of taste (food or drink) based entirely on sight alone. But as far as appearance goes, what you’re looking for are color, clarity, and head retention. The companies need to focus on these attributes in order to determine a valid taste for beer buyer preference. Taste: Taste is one of the most important things which determine the purchase of the beer. The repeat purchase takes place when t he taste of the beer suits a customer. A taste test would be the ideal test to be performed to exactly know what the preference of the customers is.Aftertaste: (Finish) The term aftertaste is not a negative thing like many would believe. An aftertaste can be bad, or it can be good. It all depends on your personal preference. The aftertaste will magnify the good and the bad qualities a beer will possess. These are the four attributes which are important in determining the purchase decision of a beer. Q3: should television networks and stations accept advertising using comparative ad’s? what standards (and do) they use in making decisions? Standards of Beer advertisingBeer advertising should not suggest directly or indirectly that any of the laws applicable to the sale and consumption of beer should not be complied with. Brewers should adhere to contemporary standards of good taste applicable to all commercial advertising and consistent with the medium or context in which the a dvertising appears. Advertising themes, creative aspects, and placements should reflect the fact that brewers are responsible corporate citizens. Brewers strongly oppose abuse or inappropriate consumption of their products. The standards the television networks should follow areBeer advertising and marketing materials should not portray, encourage, or condone drunk driving. Although beer advertising and marketing materials may show beer being consumed (where permitted by media standards), advertising and marketing materials should not depict situations where beer is being consumed rapidly, excessively, involuntarily, as part of a drinking game, or as a result of a dare. Beer advertising and marketing materials should not portray persons lacking control over their behavior, movement, or speech as a result of consuming beer or in any way suggest that such conduct is acceptable.Beer advertising and marketing materials should not portray other brands of beer as low quality and standard than there beer. This technique should not be used only while advertising their product. Beer advertising and marketing materials should not portray beer drinking before or during activities, which for safety reasons; require a high degree of alertness or coordination. Retail outlets where beer is served or sold portrayed in advertising should not be depicted as unkempt or unmanaged.

Hobbes and Locke Social Contract Theory Essay

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are two of the most influential political philosophers of the modern age. Their ideas on political philosophy, among other ideas, have helped shaped the Western World, as we know it. One of the most important theories that the two have both discussed, and written in detail on, is the idea of the social contract. Social Contract Theory is the view that moral and/or political duties depend on a contract that leads to the formation of a civil society. Thomas Hobbes was the first person to come up with the idea of a social contract in his text, Leviathan. As with any concept in history, other political philosophers have used Hobbes’ theory as a stepping-stone. One of those men is John Locke, who presents a very different account of how it is civil society is formed. Although both men have very different accounts on the social contract notion, there are some similarities between the two. Before putting pen to paper Hobbes had a front row seat to a quintessential moment in early English history—the English Civil War. The war was a dispute between King Charles I and his followers, the Monarchists and the Parliamentarians. The Monarchists preferred the traditional authority of the king, while the Parliamentarians demanded more power for Parliament, England’s quasi-democratic institution. Hobbes is somewhere in between the two groups with his own set of views. Hobbes believed that political authority is based on the self-interest of the members of the society, all of who are considered equal. He argued that no single individual had the power to rule over the rest. He also backed the conservative point of view that the sovereign must have absolute authority in order for society to last without disruption. It is in the rejection of the Monarchist point of view, that Hobbes and Locke find their first similarity. Both authors sought out to refute the positions presented by Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha, regarding the issue of the Divine Right of Kings. Filmer believed that God gave absolute authority to the king. Since God gives the power to the king, political society focused on obeying God unconditionally. Although Hobbes did agree that it was necessary for a king to have absolute authority in order to keep the people in line, he believed that authority came from the people living in the community and not God. Locke’s most influential political writings come from his Two Treatises On Government. His First Treatise is focused almost entirely on rejecting Filmer’s theory. Locke is in line with Hobbes in his belief that political authority comes from the consent of the governed. Along with this similarity, both men also agree on the idea that those people in a State of Nature will willingly consent to coming together to form a political society. They also agree on the belief that people would live in fear of each other regardless of their ability to use reason. Human nature allows men to be selfish. All people have the natural right to defend their own life, liberty, health and property. This fear is what leads many people to come together and form a state so that there would be a central authority to protect their life, liberty, health and property of all people within society. Along with creating the outline for the social contract theory, Hobbes was also a major contribution to the idea of the State of Nature, a hypothetical situation used to show how people lived before the establishment of society. In the State of Nature, life was â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,† characterized by self-interest and the absence of rights and laws (Hobbes 89). Hobbes believed that man was fundamentally evil and required a central authority to keep them out of the conditions of the state of nature. Locke, on the other hand, saw individuals as exercising moral limits over their actions. In order to answer the question of why the people should be willing to submit to political authority, Hobbes uses the idea of a State of Nature. This is a completely hypothetical situation through which he imagines what life was like for men before the establishment of civil society. In the State of Nature, men are naturally and entirely self interested, resources are limited and there is no power that forces the people to follow the rules of society. Men are also considered equal to one another in that even the strongest man can be killed in his sleep. There is no ability for men to ensure the satisfaction of their needs and desires as humans, and no prolonged systems of cooperation among men. The state of nature is a state of constant fear and distrust, or as Hobbes puts it â€Å"a state of perpetual and unavoidable war† (Hobbes 90). Based on the previous definition of the State of Nature, it would seem that mankind is doomed for eternity. However, hope is not lost. Using the power of reason, they are able to understand the laws of nature, which lead man out of the state of nature and into civil society. A Law of Nature, (Lex Naturalis), is a Precept, or generall rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved. (Hobbes 91) The first rule of nature is to seek peace when others are also willing to follow in the quest for peace, â€Å"That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre† (Hobbes 92). In the pages leading up to the natural laws, Hobbes describes what it is that drives us to seek peace. â€Å"The Passions that encline men to Peace, are Feare of Death; Desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a Hope by their Industry to obtain them† (Hobbes 90). These are the things that lead people out of the state of nature and into forming a political society. People want protection of their bodies, property, and commodious living. It is through reason that men are led to the construction of a Social Contract, allowing for a life better then in the State of Nature. The social contract is formed through the establishment of two other contracts. The first contract is that they must agree to establish society by renouncing the rights that they had in the State of Nature. The second is that they must choose a single person, or an assembly of people, that will have the authority to enforce the various parts of the contract. The sovereign has the power to punish those who violate the social contract, which leads people to adjust themselves to the rules of their society. In order to understand the purpose of the Social Contract, Hobbes sets forth a definition of a commonwealth, or civil society: And in him consisteth the Essence of the Commonwealth; which (to define it,) is One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence. (Locke 121) Without a common power to exercise force, society would be the same as it was while in the State of Nature. The Social Contract is considered to be the fundamental source within society for all that is good, along with being the force that allows us to live well. On the opposite side of the spectrum is another major figure in political philosophy, Locke. Locke’s views are very different from that of Hobbes, besides the fact that Locke uses the State of Nature concept created by Hobbes. For Locke, the State of Nature is a state of complete and perfect liberty to live the best life possible, while being free from interference from others. We must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man. (Locke 5) In this state of equality no person has any power over any one else—everyone is subjectively equal. â€Å"The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one; and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it that, being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions† (Locke 5). The state of nature is not a state of license, or a state of authority, in that individuals have the ability to do whatever they want. Although this society is pre-government, morals guide the laws of nature. God gives the natural laws to commands and us that we do not harm others, since we are all equal in the eyes of God. For Locke, the State of Nature is more like a state of liberty that allows the people to pursue their own interests free from interference. It is considered a peaceful state because of the natural laws and its restrictions on the people. Hobbes saw the State of Nature as being a state of constant war, a drastic change compared to the views presented by Locke. Although Locke’s state is predominantly peaceful, there is potential for a State of War. According to Locke, the State of War starts between two or more people when one person declares war on the other. This is usually done by stealing something from the other, or trying to make another man a slave. Since there is no central power to mediate the dispute and the laws of nature allow for self-defense, people are allowed to kill anyone that brings force against them. Without a force to mediate, the duration of wars is much longer and more brutal. Political societies form when men come together in the State of Nature, and agree to give up their power to punish those who disobey the laws of nature and give that power to a central authority. It is through this that the people consent to the will of the majority. Through leaving the state of nature and forming a society, the people create a â€Å"one body politic under one government† and are thus subjected to the will of that particular â€Å"body† (Locke 55). The only way for one to become part of society is through our own individual consent, meaning we cannot be forced to join the society. By joining a society, people gain a few things that they lacked in the State of Nature. These aspects consist of laws, a judge to settle disputes regarding laws and most importantly an executive power to enforce the law. The executive power is created for the protection of the people, their property and general well being. It is when this protection is non-existent, or the King becomes a tyrant by acting against the interest of the people, that the contract can be thrown away. It is with this that the process of establishing a social contract can begin once again, and also the power. Both Hobbes and Locke agree on the fact that people living in a state of nature will come together to form a contract amongst themselves, which ultimately leads to the establishment of society. Both Hobbes and Locke also agreed that people living in a state of nature would be living in a constant state of fear of one another before society is established. Hobbes has a much darker view of Human Nature, seeing them as inherently evil, while Locke viewed man as being guided by â€Å"rational self-interest† with the ability to self-govern without the Leviathan watching over you. These two figures have helped shape our modern systems of government among many other things.

Organizational psychology Essay

I’m likely to be motivated most by personal growth factors. This is understandable for a person who seeks personal fulfillment and development. I’m achievement oriented and have a preference for an interesting and challenging job. However, all other factors pertinent to work environment are also important to me. There are several formal theories of motivation that help me to increase my own productivity and motivate my colleagues. The two-factor theory divides factors that affect employee performance and productivity into two broad categories, namely motivation factors (encompassing factors related to satisfaction and work content) and hygiene factors (those related to dissatisfaction and work conditions). The focus in the organization should be on enhancing employee motivation to the extent that it provides opportunities for (a) achievement, (b) recognition, (c) responsibility, (d) advancement, and (e) growth in competence. According to the two-factor model, both ‘satisfiers’ and ‘dissatisfiers’ are of value to a person that ranks factors related to the content of work (e. g. recognition and chances to advance) as high as factors related to work conditions (e. g. friendly co-workers and flexible schedule). For me, reward and recognition are less important than the nature of a job. Material needs are less important for me than personal satisfaction or clients’ approval. The most applicable theory in my case is Goal Setting Theory. Goal Setting Theory is the most critically acclaimed theory of motivation. It argues that individuals are motivated to achieve goals they set, and the strength of their motivation depends on goal specificity, goal difficulty, and commitment and feedback. Other moderating factors include self-efficacy of an employee and task complexity. My perception of difficulty of achieving a goal might be too subjective and my reliance on feedback might be less than by other employees, yet I’m very result-driven and challenged by complex yet interesting tasks. My motivation is influenced by the difficulty of goals (such as ensuring high customer satisfaction ratings on big projects were there are many stakeholders), yet goals’ value (excitement from working on a specific type of project delivering good results rather than cash influx) is more important. My superiors have recognized that it is important to give me freedom in choosing projects I’m motivated to work on and allow me to set my own objectives and performance measures. My high appreciation of autonomy and power also suggest that I am more effective as an individual worker than a team player. This is yet another reason why Goal Setting Theory is appropriate for my motivation: it has been argued that workers with higher self-efficacy are more effective in personal goal setting and fulfillment. However, this does not mean that I don’t value team spirit as a means of motivating my co-workers. Our company’s motto is ‘Let’s Build Something Together. ’ Therefore, encouraging teamwork is one of the ways to increase motivation and productivity. Our management succeeded in gathering and developing an outstanding crew by applying several important principles of group work management which I also follow. I foster group cohesion by a variety of methods and believed that sound preparation, ego less teamwork, and original strategizing are the inherent components of success. In my view, the emphasis should have been on team performance rather than individual performance. People, management, and psychology are three important aspects of teamwork. The emphasis on continuous learning makes it possible to stay ahead. When skills and knowledge of all group members combine in a way that exceeds the sum of knowledge of all individual members, the synergy effect can be observed, i. . the system as a whole has certain qualities its elements do not have. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to pay attentive to group cohesion so that exceptional results can be achieved with limited human resources available in each organization. Group decision making means not only working to achieve better solutions but also promote growth of community and trust. Group decision making ensures much higher level of member satisfaction and motivation. Greater commitment is also among important advantages of group decision making. Open, collaborative atmosphere ensures contribution from all levels and no domination, intimidation or judgment from the boss. Participation in problem solving increases acceptance; some even argue that a lower-quality solution that has wide acceptance can be more effective than a higher-quality solution that lacks acceptance. It’s possible to conclude that I’m motivated by complex yet interesting tasks, while teamwork and group decision making are the tools I use to motivate others.

Altruistic Surrogacy Arrangements Essay Example for Free

Altruistic Surrogacy Arrangements Essay Couples around the world find out that they’re unable to conceive children. This is a very heart breaking and detrimental situation in anyones life who is trying to have a child. Infertility affects more than 7 million people in the United States, and about 12 percent of women of childbearing age are considered infertile. Most infertility cases are treated with drug or hormone therapies or surgery. However, about 3 percent of cases require more advanced techniques, such as surrogacy. A surrogate is a woman who carries a child for an individual or a couple. Stories of surrogacy reach back to the Bible with the story of Abraham, his wife, Sarah, and her handmaiden, Hagar. In this story, Sarah finds she is unable to conceive and arranges for Abraham to impregnate Hagar, who goes on to conceive Ishmael. There are two types of surrogacy options, one is traditional surrogacy and the other is gestational surrogacy. A traditional surrogate is a woman who donates her own egg and then carries the pregnancy. The surrogate’s egg is fertilized through artificial insemination with the sperm of the father or a sperm donor. Traditional surrogates are genetically related to the child because their own eggs are used in the process. A gestational surrogate or also known as a gestational carrier, are not biologically or genetically related to the child she carries. Gestational carriers become pregnant through the process of in vitro fertilization, where an embryo or embryos created from the eggs and sperm of the intended parents. Donor eggs and donor sperm are selected by the intended parents are implanted in the uterus for the gestational period of 40 weeks. Intended parents and surrogates have to consider what type of surrogacy arrangement they feel like they are comfortable with. There are two common types of arrangements pertaining to surrogacy, which are commercial and altruistic. In commercial surrogacy the surrogate is paid for her time and effort, any travel involved and related medical expenses not covered by insurance. The chosen surrogate and the intended parents usually don’t know each other before the arrangement. In altruistic surrogacy arrangements, the carrier sees no financial gain, and the arrangements are commonly made with relatives or friends of the intended parents. Surrogacy is against the Church’s teaching, they teach that techniques that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other than the couple (donation of sperm or ovum, surrogate uterus), are gravely immoral. These techniques (heterologous artificial insemination and fertilization) infringe the child’s right to be born of a father and mother known to him and bound to each other by marriage. They betray the spouses’ â€Å"right to become a father and a mother only through each other (Catechism). † The use of a surrogate mother is a process that is thousands of years old. This is proven in the writings of the Bible in the story of Abraham and his wife Sarah, she was infertile. At this time in the earth’s history, a woman who was childless was often at times shamed by her family and friends. These women would offer their servants to act as a surrogate. The Bible does not specifically forbid the process of surrogacy. The question that you must ask is, whether it is considered to be moral or ethical with keeping children conceived out of love, born from a married couple. The Bible has also been interpreted as stating that children are a gift, not a right. Therefore, God will bless some people with children and others not. Personally I believe surrogacy is an â€Å"okay† practice. Surrogacy ultimately brings joy to the couple and why would god not want us to seek happiness. Surrogacy may seem to be defying God’s will but I think it’s a way of making a precious life out of a bad situation. Being told you will not be able to have your own children is a heart breaking situation. You would never know how it felt until you experience yourself. What gives us the right to judge someone else for wanting a child from their own DNA. If Surrogacy can use one embryo and not kill of the others I think it should be allowed in the church. Altruistic Surrogacy Arrangements. (2018, Nov 07).